Quantification of MR spectra by deep learning in an idealized setting: Investigation of forms of input, network architectures, optimization by ensembles of networks, and training bias.

PURPOSE The aims of this work are (1) to explore deep learning (DL) architectures, spectroscopic input types, and learning designs toward optimal quantification in MR spectroscopy of simulated pathological spectra; and (2) to demonstrate accuracy and precision of DL predictions in view of inherent bias toward the training distribution. METHODS Simulated 1D spectra and 2D spectrograms that mimic an extensive range of pathological in vivo conditions are used to train and test 24 different DL architectures. Active learning through altered training and testing data distributions is probed to optimize quantification performance. Ensembles of networks are explored to improve DL robustness and reduce the variance of estimates. A set of scores compares performances of DL predictions and traditional model fitting (MF). RESULTS Ensembles of heterogeneous networks that combine 1D frequency-domain and 2D time-frequency domain spectrograms as input perform best. Dataset augmentation with active learning can improve performance, but gains are limited. MF is more accurate, although DL appears to be more precise at low SNR. However, this overall improved precision originates from a strong bias for cases with high uncertainty toward the dataset the network has been trained with, tending toward its average value. CONCLUSION MF mostly performs better compared to the faster DL approach. Potential intrinsic biases on training sets are dangerous in a clinical context that requires the algorithm to be unbiased to outliers (i.e., pathological data). Active learning and ensemble of networks are good strategies to improve prediction performances. However, data quality (sufficient SNR) has proven as a bottleneck for adequate unbiased performance-like in the case of MF

Deep Learning For Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Quantification: A Time-Frequency Analysis Approach

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is a technique capable of detecting chemical compounds from localized volumes in living tissues. Quantification of MRS signals is required for obtaining the metabolite concentrations of the tissue under investigation. However, reliable quantification of MRS is difficult. Recently deep learning (DL) has been used for metabolite quantification of MRS signals in the frequency domain. In another study, it was shown that DL in combination with time-frequency analysis could be used for artifact detection in MRS. In this study, we verify the hypothesis that DL in combination with time-frequency analysis can also be used for metabolite quantification and yields results more robust than DL trained with MR signals in the frequency domain. We used the complex matrix of absolute wavelet coefficients (WC) for the timefrequency representation of the signal, and convolutional neural network (CNN) implementation for DL. The comparison with DL used for quantification of data in the frequency domain is presented

Deep Learning For Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Quantification: A Time-Frequency Analysis Approach

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is a technique capable of detecting chemical compounds from localized volumes in living tissues. Quantification of MRS signals is required for obtaining the metabolite concentrations of the tissue under investigation. However, reliable quantification of MRS is difficult. Recently deep learning (DL) has been used for metabolite quantification of MRS signals in the frequency domain. In another study, it was shown that DL in combination with time-frequency analysis could be used for artifact detection in MRS. In this study, we verify the hypothesis that DL in combination with time-frequency analysis can also be used for metabolite quantification and yields results more robust than DL trained with MR signals in the frequency domain. We used the complex matrix of absolute wavelet coefficients (WC) for the timefrequency representation of the signal, and convolutional neural network (CNN) implementation for DL. The comparison with DL used for quantification of data in the frequency domain is presented

NIfTI‐MRS:a standard data format for magnetic resonance spectroscopy

PURPOSE: Multiple data formats in the MRS community currently hinder data sharing and integration. NIfTI-MRS is proposed as a standard spectroscopy data format, implemented as an extension to the Neuroimaging informatics technology initiative (NIfTI) format. This standardized format can facilitate data sharing and algorithm development as well as ease integration of MRS analysis alongside other imaging modalities. METHODS: A file format using the NIfTI header extension framework incorporates essential spectroscopic metadata and additional encoding dimensions. A detailed description of the specification is provided. An open-source command-line conversion program is implemented to convert single-voxel and spectroscopic imaging data to NIfTI-MRS. Visualization of data in NIfTI-MRS is provided by development of a dedicated plugin for FSLeyes, the FMRIB Software Library (FSL) image viewer. RESULTS: Online documentation and 10 example datasets in the proposed format are provided. Code examples of NIfTI-MRS readers are implemented in common programming languages. Conversion software, spec2nii, currently converts 14 formats where data is stored in image-space to NIfTI-MRS, including Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) and vendor proprietary formats. CONCLUSION: NIfTI-MRS aims to solve issues arising from multiple data formats being used in the MRS community. Through a single conversion point, processing and analysis of MRS data are simplified, thereby lowering the barrier to use of MRS. Furthermore, it can serve as the basis for open data sharing, collaboration, and interoperability of analysis programs. Greater standardization and harmonization become possible. By aligning with the dominant format in neuroimaging, NIfTI-MRS enables the use of mature tools present in the imaging community, demonstrated in this work by using a dedicated imaging tool, FSLeyes, for visualization